1. Fine MJ, Auble TE, Yealy DM, et al A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med .1997;336:243-250.
2. Lim WS, van der Eerden MM, Laing R, et al. Defining community acquired pneumonia severity on presentation to hospital: an international derivation and validation study. Thorax . 2003;58:377-382.
3. Aujesky D, Auble TE, Yealy DM, et al. Prospective comparison of three validated prediction rules for prognosis in community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Med . 2005;118:384-392.
4. Arnold FW, Ramirez JA, McDonald LC, Xia EL. Hospitalization for community-acquired pneumonia: the pneumonia severity index vs clinical judgment. Chest . 2003;124:121-124.
5. Aujesky D, McCausland JB, Whittle J, et al. Reasons why emergency department providers do not rely on the pneumonia severity index to determine the initial site of treatment for patients with pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis . 2009;49:e100-108.
6. Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis . 2007;44 Suppl 2:S27-72.
7. Charles PG, Wolfe R, Whitby M, et al. SMART-COP: a tool for predicting the need for intensive respiratory or vasopressor support in community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis . 2008;47:375-384.
8. Marti C, Garin N, Grosgurin O, et al. Prediction of severe community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care . 2012;16:R141.
9. Jain S, Self WH, Wunderink RG, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization among U.S. adults. N Engl J Med . 2015;373:415-427.
10. Kalil AC, Metersky ML, Klompas M, et al. Management of adults with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016 Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis . 2016;63:e61-e111.
11. Wunderink RG, Niederman MS, Kollef MH, et al. Linezolid in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia: a randomized, controlled study. Clin Infect Dis . 2012;54:621-629.
12. Silverman JA, Mortin LI, Vanpraagh AD, et al. Inhibition of daptomycin by pulmonary surfactant: in vitro modeling and clinical impact. J Infect Dis . 2005;191:2149-2152.
13. El Hajj MS, Turgeon RD, Wilby KJ. Ceftaroline fosamil for community-acquired pneumonia and skin and skin structure infections: a systematic review. Int J Clin Pharm . 2017;39:26-32.
14. Taboada M, Melnick D, Iaconis JP, et al. Ceftaroline fosamil versus ceftriaxone for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia: individual patient data meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Antimicrob Chemother . 2016;71:862-870.
15. Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE, et al. Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children: executive summary. Clin Infect Dis . 2011;52:285-292.
16. Janoff EM. Streptococcus pneumonia. In: Bennett JE, Dolin R, Blaser MJ, editors. Mandell, Douglas and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases . 8th ed. Philadelphia: Sauders; 2015:2310-2327.
17. Teflaro (ceftaroline fosamil) [package insert]. St. Louis, MO: Forest Pharmaceuticals; 2010.
18. Nuzyra (omadacycline) [package insert]. Boston, MA: Paratek Pharmaceuticals; 2018.
19. Xenleta (lefamulin) [package insert]. Dublin, Ireland: Nabriva Therapeutics; 2019.
20. Baddour LM, Yu VL, Klugman KP, et al. Combination antibiotic therapy lowers mortality among severely ill patients with pneumococcal bacteremia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med . 2004;170:440-444.
21. FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA warns of increased risk of death with IV antibacterial Tygacil (tigecycline) and approves new boxed warning. www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm369580.htm . Accessed 16 September 2019.
22. Edelstein PR, CR. Legionnaires’ disease and Pontiac fever. In: Kasper DF, editor. Harrison’s Infectious Diseases . 1st ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2010:2633.
23. Hammerschlag MR, Kohlhoff SA, Gaydos, CA. Chlamydia pneumoniae. In: Kasper DF, editor. Harrison’s Infectious Diseases . 1st ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2010:2174.
24. Holzman RS, MS. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and atypical pneumonia. In: Kasper DF, editor. Harrison’s Infectious Diseases . 1st ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2010:2183.
25. Yamada M, Buller R, Bledsoe S, Storch GA. Rising rates of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae in the central United States. Pediatr Infect Dis J . 2012;31:409-410.
26. Yi SH, Hatfield KM, Baggs J, et al. Duration of antibiotic use among adults with uncomplicated community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization in the United States. Clin Infect Dis . 2018;66:1333-1341.
27. Hayashi Y, Paterson DL. Strategies for reduction in duration of antibiotic use in hospitalized patients. Clin Infect Dis . 2011;52:1232-1240.
28. Akram AR, Chalmers JD, Taylor JK, et al. An evaluation of clinical stability criteria to predict hospital course in community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Microbiol Infect . 2013;19:1174-1180.
29. Halm EA, Fine MJ, Kapoor WN, et al. Instability on hospital discharge and the risk of adverse outcomes in patients with pneumonia. Arch Intern Med . 2002;162:1278-1284.
30. Janoff EM. Streptococcus pneumonia. In: Bennett JE, Dolin R, Blaser MJ, editors. Mandell, Douglas and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases . 8th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2015:2310-2327.
31. Roson B, Carratala J, Fernandez-Sabe N, et al. Causes and factors associated with early failure in hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Arch Intern Med . 2004;164:502-508.
32. El-Solh AA, Pietrantoni C, Bhat A, et al. Microbiology of severe aspiration pneumonia in institutionalized elderly. Am J Respir Crit Care Med . 2003;167:1650-1654.
33. Wan YD, Sun TW, Liu ZQ, et al. Efficacy and safety of corticosteroids for community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Chest . 2016;149:209-219.
34. Torres A, Sibila O, Ferrer M, et al. Effect of corticosteroids on treatment failure among hospitalized patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia and high inflammatory response: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA . 2015;313:677-686.
35. Lloyd M, Karahalios, Janus E, et al. Effectiveness of a bundled intervention including adjunctive corticosteroids on outcomes of hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia: a stepped-wedge randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med . 2019;179:1052-1060.
36. Metlay JP, Waterer GW, Long AC, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of adults with community-acquired pneumonia. An official Clinical Practice Guideline of the American Thoracic Society and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2019;200:e45-e67.
37. McCullers JA. Insights into the interaction between influenza virus and pneumococcus. Clin Microbiol Rev . 2006;19:571-582.
38. Grohskopf LA, Alyanak E, Broder KR, et al. Prevention and control of seasonal influenza with vaccines: recommendations of the advisory committee on immunization practices - United States, 2019-20 influenza season. MMWR Recomm Rep . 2019;68:1-21.
39. Rubins JB, Alter M, Loch J, Janoff EN. Determination of antibody responses of elderly adults to all 23 capsular polysaccharides after pneumococcal vaccination. Infect Immun . 1999;67:5979-5984.
40. Vaccines and preventable diseases. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Web site. www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vpd/pneumo/hcp/about-vaccine.html . Accessed 16 September 2019.
41. Bonten MJ, Huijts SM, Bolkenbaas M, et al. Polysaccharide conjugate vaccine against pneumococcal pneumonia in adults. N Engl J Med . 2015;372:1114-1125.
42. Recommended adult immunization schedule -- United States -- 2019. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Web site. www.cdc.gov/vaccines/schedules/downloads/adult/adult-combined-schedule.pdf . Accessed 16 September 2019.
43. Recommended child and adolescent immunization schedule for ages 18 years or younger – United States – 2019. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Web site. www.cdc.gov/vaccines/schedules/hcp/imz/child-adolescent.html . Accessed 22 September 2019.
44. Pneumococcal vaccine timing for adults – United States – 2019. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Web site. www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vpd/pneumo/downloads/pneumo-vaccine-timing.pdf . Accessed 22 September 2019.